Государства и культуры иранского государства - Гафуров Б.Г.
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-absorbed, they lost all their original traits. All or almost all of the elements and images of Achaemenian art can be traced back to earlier periods and to different countries, but taken as a whole, this art differs from everything known Ъе?оге and has a specifically Iranian nature Official art of Achaemenian Iran is largely of a diclarative type. The Parthian period saw the assimilation of the Hellenistic culture and arts; however, in a number of provinces (judging from «some well-known monuments, especially those in Pars) the Ancient Oriental and Achaemenian traditions continued to develop. Some aspects of ideology .and art become common for different areas. The Late Parlhian period shows many features typical of Early Sassanid art and ideology; in the Late Parthia, however, it was only one of the trends which was raised to the status of imperial art by the Sassanids. A great number of ideas and images of Sassanid culture, ideology and art are traced back not only to the Parthian, but also to the Achaemenian and even earlier Iranian civilizations. The article discusses some peculiarities of early Sassanid court art and their origins (Western influences, in particular). The article also deals with official declarative art which produced the ideal images of the Shahanshah, the nobleman and the chief God?, and with the «Mazdeist art», especially with the portrayals of animals which are iypical of that art and are incarnations of Zoroastrian deities.
/. M. D iakonof f EASTERN IRAN BEFORE CYRUS
(Possible New Approaches to the Problem)
Examined in the article are problems of the origin and earliest distribution of Iranian tribes in what now is Soviet Central Asia, Afghanistan and Eastern Iran, as well as their history in the рге-Achaemenian period in the context of Ihe Avestan tradition and in the light of available archaeological material. The author believes that the Indo-Iranian tribes separated from the Indo-
European unity (which took shape in Central and Eastern Europe) about the middle of the 3rd millennium В. С. The Aryan tribes which were essentially cow-herds but also engaged in auxiliary crop-farming on a considerable scale, migrated slowly and gredually; it was not a military invasion. The penetration of Aryan tribes to the south in the direction of Iran and the Indian subcontinent mighl have occurred aiong the western shore of the Caspian—but there are no substantial data to support this view; besides, this route leads to mountain massifs not very easy to pass. The other conceivable route is from Central Asia via the valley of the Tejen-Herirud and thence to Kandahar towards India or to Mashhad and Nishapur towards Iran. That this route was the one taken by ihe Indo-Iranian tribes seems to be borne out by various circumstancial evidence.
Common features characteristic of a developed economic and social system which transpire from a collation of Vedic and Avestan data could have emerged in the course of close contacts between the ancestors of the Vedic Indo-
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Aryans and that part of the Iranian tribes whose society is reflected in the Avesta. This process must have taken place in conditions of a sufficiently developed civilisation, such as can be traced archaeologically in the South-West of Central Asia and in the contiguous regions of Iran and Afghanistan. The bearers of these cultures were presumably Indo-Iranians, and later, Iranians — probably at least since the 17th century B. C. (beginning of the Namazglia VI period). The ancestors of the Indo-Aryans left these territories for the Indian subcontinent not later than in the second quarter of the 2nd millennium B. C. After that, the above-named territories were probably inhabited mainly or exclusively by Iranianspeaking tribes.
To judge from the latest available archaeologiacal data, the pre-Avestan and Avestan cultures of the pre-Achaemenian period should be located in Par-thia, Haria, Margiana, Bactria, Drangiana, or Arachosia of the first half of the 1st millennium В. С. The scanty information of Greek authors seems to indicate the existence in the pre-Achaemenian period of a regional confederation headed by Bactria (however, there is evidence that Bactria could not be the home of the Avesta and the field of the activities of Zarathustra and Kavi Vistaspa), as well as of another confederation which included Chorasmia, Drangiana and other territories (cf. Herodotus, III, 117) and which, according to archaeological data and by inference from some literary data, apparently ceased to exist before the time of the rise of the Achaemenian state. It is this latter confederation which probably is mentioned by the Avesta (cf. especially Yasht 10).
Vistaspa's kingdom, or its centre, lay probably in Drangiana; certainly the-dynasty of the Kaviaus hailed from there. Zarathustra must have preached at the court of ViStaspa not later than in the 7th century B. C. Not only the Gathas but also the rest of the Yasna, the Yashts and the core of the Videvdat must have been compiled in the pre-Achaemenian period or in any case before the 5th century В. С., i. e. before Eastern Iran began to be fully controlled by the Achaemenian administration.
